The Historical Development of Chinese Martial Arts

Do you know why you will not find the term kung fu in classical Chinese texts, although there is a lot of Kung Fu material recorded in history and literature? Did you know that boxing and wrestling were popular sports in China centuries ago? A brief history of Kung Fu from the Stone Age to the modern day will help to clarify the way in which the art has developed in its present form.
The concept as well as the content of Kung Fu varies according to the needs and fashion of a particular time. For example, during the time of the Zhou Dynasty (1030-480 BCE), archery and horse riding were prominent aspects of Kung Fu, or jiji as it was generally known then. Today, we normally think of it as involving unarmed combat patterns and prearranged sparring.
In this chapter we shall look at the extensive and comprehensive concept and content of Chinese martial arts from earliest times. In the next two we shall examine the development of the various school of Kung Fu as we generally know it today.

Kung Fu in Prehistoric and Ancient Times
Kung Fu is older than civilization. As long as there have been people on earth, there has been fighting. And as long as there has been fighting people have devised ways of helping themselves fighting well. These developed into an art, which was Kung Fu, and it occurred before people began farming and settlement, which were the beginnings of civilization.
In the past, Kung Fu was known by other names. In fact throughout history (and prehistory), Chinese martial arts have been known by over 40 different terms! Certain names were popular at certain periods. The term ‘Kung Fu’is comparatively modern- it has been used only in the 20th century. Hence, if you examine classical Chinese texts, you will not find the term kung fu used, the term wushu, which has been popular since 1949 was also used from the 3rd to the 6th century CE. The term that was most commonly used from the 3rd century BCE to the 19 th century CE is wuyi. Wu means martial, and yi means art. Both wushu and wuyi are translated as ‘martial art’, but senmantically, yi is the more precisein its meaning.
Other common terms used to refer to Chinese martial arts in the past are listed below, with their literal English translations.
Jueli combating strength
Juedi wrestling
Jiji techniques of fighting
Wuji martial techniques
Xiangpu butting combat
Xiangpo inter-combat
Shoupo hand combat or boxing
Zuojiao grippinng and throwing
Quanfa fist techniques
Quanshu art of the fist
Chinese archaeological discoveries show that the Stone-Age Chiniese were well versed in martial arts and had large quantities of axes, spears and swords made from stones and bones. The earliest of these weapons, dated to more than 7,000 years ago, were of a surprisingly high standard. These prehistoric men emplyed martial arts individually in fighting amongst themselves and against animals, as well as collectively in tribal wars. Archaeological evidence suggests that during periods of peace, they performed dances based on martial art movements. Hence, the dance-like sets that you perform now when you practise Kung Fu may be traced back to these prehistoric ancestors!
During the metal age in the Hsia and Shang Dynasties (2000-1030 BCE), weapons were made from copper and later bronze. The earliest Chinese writings on bones and tortoise shells depicted many martial art concepts. By the time of the Zhou Dynasty (c 1030-480 BCE), Chinese martial arts, known as quanyong (fist fighting), and shoupo (hand combat) at that time, had developed into sophisticated systems with profound philosophies. The principles of yin-yang, wu-xing (the five elemental processes), and bagua (or pakua, the eight archetypal symbols) were employed to explain many martial art concepts.
During the Warring States period (480-221 BCE) various governments as well as the general public placed tremendous importance on martial arts, which were known as jiji ( techniques of fighting) and xiangpo (inter-combat) at that time. Archery and horseback fighting became essential aspects of martial arts. The world-famous classic on warfare, The Military Strategies of Sun Tzu, was written in this period.
After Shi Hwang Ti had unified China and established the Qin Dynasty (221-207 BCE), he introduced the sports of shoupo (boxing and juedi (wrestling), where two contestants fought each other in an enclosure. These were probably the earliest boxing and wrestling matches in the world.

The Glorious Han and Tang
The term wuyi first appeared in the Han Dynasty (207BCE-220 CE) and has remained the most popular term for martial arts among the Chinese throughout the ages. At this time it included archery, horseback fighting weightlifting, boxing, wrestling, unarmed combat, fighting with weapons, set practice and sparring.
The sports of boxing and wrestling remained very popular, especially with the encouragement of Han Wu TI, the emperor who was well know for the Han military expansion. Han records showed that contesting boxers were bare to the waist and wore shorts just like our modern boxers, but they did not wear boxes and were not restricted by safety rules. Wrestling matches were safter; the contestants were not allowed to hit or kick, and they won by points gathered from throwing opponents to the ground.
Swordsmanship became very popular and highly respected. Not only warriors but also scholars were engaged in sword practice, and some even carried swords for personal adornment. Sword-fighting techniques were linked together to form routine sets, which were often performed as dances, frequently by pretty maidens who were not trained in martial arts; hence they sometimes degenerated into merely demonstrative forms. However, sword duels were common between martial art experts to settle disputes.
After the fall of the Han Dynasty, China broke up into numerous contesting states for about 400 years. This period is often conveniently called The Two Chin and North-South Dynasties (221-617 CE). During this time, patterns using various weapons as well as unarmed fighting patterns were linked together to form routine sets. The original purpose was to enable martial artists to remember the patterns better. In this way routine sets were established in Chinese martial arts. These sets, sometimes performed for demonstrations, were quite different from individual techniques, which were primarily practiced for fighting.. there was also a difference in martial art training between routine set practice and sparring.
It was during this time that the Venerable Bodhidharma came from India to China to spread Buddhism. In 527 CE he settled down in the Shaolin Monastery in Henan Province, and inspired the development of Shaolin Kung Fu. This marked a watershed in the history of Kung Fu, because it led to a change of course, as Kung Fu became institutionalized. Before this, martial arts were known only in a general sense. It was only after the inception of Shaolin Kung Fu that names were used to label the various schools, like Taijiquan, Bagua, Wing Choon, Eagle Claw, Praying Mantis and so on. Indeed, Kung Fu, as we understand it today, started from Shaolin.
The historical development of the various styles will be described in the next chapter; let us now return to the mainstream of Chinese martial arts.
China was unified again under the Tang Dynasty (618-906CE). The Imperial martial Examination to select outstanding warriors for the state was introduced dring the reign of Empress u. This examination, like the corresponding Imperial Civil Examination to select scholars to fill high civil posts, was comprehensive and elaborate, graduating from district and provincial to national level, and held at regular intervals. The examination subjects included horseback fighting, ground fighting, spear techniques, use of various weapons, archery on horseback and on the ground, weightlifting and military strategies.
The sports of boxing and wrestling continued to be widely enjoyed by the public. A different type of wrestling, known as xiangpu (butting combat) or juel i(combating strength), developed. The contestants wore nothing except a tight loincloth and a hairband. As they could not grasp their opponents’ collars or sleeves to effect a throw, their main tactics were butting and pushing them over by their sheer mass. The famous sumo wrestlers of Japan could trace the origin of their art to the xiangpu or jueli of the Tang Dynasty.
The Song, the Yuan and the Ming
Kung Fu, known at the time as wuyi (martial arts) and wuji (martial techniques), was exceedingly popular during the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE). The dynasty’s founding emperor himself was a Shaolin Kung Fu expert who initiated the Taiju style.
The Song government strongly encouraged the people to practise wuyi, and established martial arts schools and colleges. In 1044 it published the Grand Classic of Martial Arts, which included military organization and practice, arts of infantry and cavalry, military movements and camping, strategies and tactics, the manufacture and use of weapons, military geography, and case histories of all important battles before the Song.
Martial arts clubs were popular, and included archer’s clubs, lancers’ clubs and wrestling clubs. Song documents show that in 1125, for example, there were more than 580 archers’ clubs with 240,000 civilian archers in the empire! Many wuyi experts made a living by public demonstrations of their arts, as traveling showmen or in permanent arenas. Their shows of their arts, as traveling showmen or in permanent arenas. Their shows included wrestling, boxing, acrobatics, demonstrations of martial arts sets, weapons, archery and weightlifting. An interesting feature was that many of these experts were women. There were enough of them to justify a new term to describe them-nu zhan.
However, during the Yuan Dynasty (1260-1368CE), when the Mongols ruled China, the Chinese were forbidden to keep weapons or practise martial arts. Nevertheless, the sport of zuojiao (gripping and throwing or Mongolian wrestling) was widespread, and some martial artists also practiced their arts secretly. Many concealed wuyi in the acrobatics and actions of the dramas which were very popular at this time. But although many fighting techniques were preserved in this way, it also quickened the degradation of martial arts into purely demonstrative forms.
The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) represent a significant landmark in the development of Chinese martial arts, generally known as wuyi or quanfa (fist techniques) in this period, in that the difference between the martial and the demonstrative aspects became more distinct. On the one hand, many Ming generals employed it as an essential and highly respectied part of military training, with regular competitions amongst the soldiers. On the other hand, professional wuyi display artists regarded it as a performing art, often adulterating it with flowery movements to please the spectators. The term ‘flowery fists and embroidery kicks’ was commonly used to describe the type of decorative movement, which gradually became ineffective for combat purposes.
The Ming period also witnessed the establishment of many Kung Fu styles. The Taiju style founded by the first Song emperor, and the Eagle Claw style founded by the famous Song general Yue Fei, both of whom were Shaolin masters, evolved into distinctive schools of Kung Fu. Both arts were initially practiced in the armies but later diffused into public practise. They praying mantis style was founded in this period by a Shaolin master, Wang Lang.
The distinction between the ‘external’ and ‘internal’ schools of Kung Fu was first mentioned in the Ming period. In the much quoted Elegy of Wang Zhong Nan, Huang Zhong Yi said that:
Shaolin Kung Fu is the most famous beneath heaven, and is primarily used for fighting, hence it is external; whereas internal Kung Fu emphasizes the quiescence against the moving, and originated with the Taoist priest Zhang San Feng of the Song Period.
In his Internal Kung Fu, the famous master of the internal school, Zhang Song Xi, said:
There are two schools of Kung Fu, namely external and internal. The best known of the external is Shaolin, which is meant mainly for attack. The internal is meant mainly for defence, and is soft.
Many important martial arts classics were written during the Ming period. Some of the greatest works, which are still used as authoritative references today, are Collections from the Hall of Righteousness by Yu Da Yau, New Book of Discipline by Chi Ji Guang, Records of Military Formations by He Liang Chen and Classic of Martail Matters by Mao Yuan Yi. All the above writers were great generals who were also Kung Fu masters. These books, which describe not only various types of contemporary Kung Fu but also important matters of warfare, are a reflection of the intimate relationship between martial arts and military affairs at that time.
It was during the Ming period that the spread of Chinese martial arts to Japan was most significant. For example, in 1619 a Kung Fu master, Chen Yuan Bin, arrived in Japan to teach Shaolin Kung Fu, laying the foundation for jujitsu, the forerunner of judo.
The Modern Period
When the Manchus established the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), the government encouraged wuyi in the army, but discouraged it amongst civilians. Many Manchurian generals and administrators were great Kung Fu masters.
The public maintained the practice of martial arts in private schools and clubs. Hence features like individual fighting, unarmed combat, set practice for health and demonstration were emphasized. Other aspects connected with extensive warfare, like military strategies and formations, archery and horseback fighting were neglected. This gradual evolution resulted in the concept and content of Kung Fu that we are familiar with today.
The Qing period was important for the development of the internal styles of Kung Fu. Taijiquan, which had earlier evolved from Shaolin Kung Fu, become widely practiced in northern China during this period. The other two major styles of internal Kung Fu, Bagua (Pakua) and Xing Yi, were established. Many imperial guards of the palace practiced Bagua Kung Fu.
In southern China, Shaolin Kung Fu prevailed. The Southern Shaolin Monastery in Fujian Province became a rallying centre for revolutionaries aiming to overthrow the Manchurian government. The Manchurian armies razed the monastery and Shaolin masters were dispersed to Guangdong Province, Hong Kong, South-East Asia and America. One of these masters was the Shaolin Monk Jiang Nan, who transmitted the Shaolin arts to yang Fa Kun. Yang Fa Kun transmitted the artsto Ho Fatt Nam, my master, who kindly and generously taught them to me.
Dr Sun Yat Sen’s successful revolution in 1911 brought the long dynastic history of China to a close. Many of the revolutionaries were secular Shaolin disciple. Numerous martial arts organizations were formed, the most important being Jing Wu (Ching Woo) Athletic Association, which was founded by a Kung Fu expert, Huo Yuan Jia, and had branches in many parts of China and South-east Asia. In 1926 the Kuomintang government changed the term wushu, which was commonly used then, to guoshu, meaning ‘national art’.
Ironically, the standard of guoshu deteriorated further into flowery forms for demonstration during this period. Two reasons for this were that the emergence of firearms greatly reduced the importance of martial arts training in the army, and that the Kuomintang government only paid lip service to the promotion of guoshu. For instance, the Kuomintang army in Taiwan today is trained in taekwondo instead of in guoshu, their national art!
In contrast, the Communist government which replaced the Kuomintang in China has done a great deal to revive the glory and greatness of Chinese martial arts, which they renamed wushu. There are working committees at national, provincial and district levels to study and promote the arts; specialized wushu schools and colleges have been established; wushu teams are sent overseas for promotional demonstrations; numerous books giving invaluable information on wushu have been published; and national and international wushu tournames are held. Wush is already included in the Asian Games, and is expected be included in the next Olympic Games. But to me, the most important contribution of the present Chinese government to wushu, and one which may turn out to have the most far reaching consequences, is the restoration of the sacred temple of Kung Fu, the fabulous Shaolin Monastery, which spells magic to many martial arts enthusiasts throughout the world.